Unit 2 · Age of Reformation

Indulgences ● (core concept) — Pardons sold by the Catholic Church reducing punishment for sin; their sale provoked Luther's Ninety-five Theses.

Martin Luther ● (core concept) — German monk whose criticisms of Church practices, especially the sale of indulgences, sparked the Protestant Reformation.

Protestant Reformation ● (core concept) — The 16th-century religious movement challenging the Catholic Church, beginning with Martin Luther and producing new Protestant churches.

Protestant work ethic ● (core concept) — The notion sanctioned by some Protestant groups that wealth accumulation was a sign of God's favor and a reward for hard work.

Justification by faith ○ — The Protestant doctrine that salvation comes through faith alone, not through good works or Church sacraments.

Lutheranism ○ — The Protestant tradition following Luther's teachings, established as a major confession in Germany and Scandinavia.

Ninety-five Theses ○ — Luther's list of arguments against indulgences and Church corruption, widely seen as sparking the Reformation.

Vernacular Bible ○ — Translations of the Bible into everyday languages, which spread Protestant ideas and increased lay access to scripture.

Anabaptists ● (core concept) — Radical Protestant groups rejecting infant baptism; an illustrative example of continuing reform movements.

Cottage industry (putting-out system) ● (core concept) — Rural manufacturing in which merchants supplied materials to households; a step toward industrialization.

Henry VIII ● (core concept) — English king whose break with Rome over his marriage created the Church of England.

John Calvin ● (core concept) — French reformer whose theology, centered on predestination, shaped Reformed Protestantism across Europe.

Predestination ● (core concept) — The Calvinist doctrine that God has predetermined who will be saved and who damned.

Calvinism ○ — The Protestant tradition following Calvin's theology, spreading to Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland.

Church of England (Anglican Church) ○ — England's national Protestant church, established under Henry VIII with the monarch as its head.

Huguenots ○ — French Calvinist Protestants; their persecution illustrates the French Wars of Religion.

Ulrich Zwingli ○ — Swiss reformer; an illustrative example of Protestant reform beyond Luther and Calvin.

Edict of Nantes ● (core concept) — The decree granting limited religious toleration to French Huguenots.

French Wars of Religion ● (core concept) — Conflicts in which religious reform exacerbated tensions between monarchy and nobility, exemplifying how religion influenced and was influenced by politics.

Peace of Westphalia (1648) ● (core concept) — The 1648 settlement ending the Thirty Years' War, recognizing state sovereignty and rulers' right to determine their territory's religion.

Thirty Years' War ● (core concept) — A devastating Central European conflict that began as a Catholic-Protestant struggle and drew in most major European powers.

Wars of Religion ● (core concept) — The 16th- and 17th-century conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, including France's civil wars and the Thirty Years' War.

Spanish Armada ○ — Spain's failed naval invasion of Protestant England; an illustrative example of Catholic-Protestant conflict.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre ○ — The mass killing of Huguenots in Paris; a notorious episode of the French Wars of Religion.

Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation) ● (core concept) — The Catholic Church's 16th-century movement to reform itself and counter Protestantism through doctrinal clarity, new religious orders, and the Inquisition.

Council of Trent ● (core concept) — The Church council that reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and enacted internal reforms in response to Protestantism.

Jesuits (Society of Jesus) ● (core concept) — A Catholic religious order founded to spread Catholicism through education and missionary work.

Ignatius of Loyola ○ — Founder of the Jesuits; an illustrative example of Catholic reformers.

Inquisition ○ — Church courts prosecuting heresy; an illustrative example of Catholic efforts against Protestantism.

Witch hunts ● (core concept) — The prosecution and execution of alleged witches, mostly women, reflecting social tensions and religious anxieties.

Baroque art ● (core concept) — A dramatic, emotional artistic style embraced by the Catholic Church to inspire faith during the Counter-Reformation.

Mannerism ● (core concept) — An artistic style marked by elongated forms and artificial elegance, bridging the Renaissance and Baroque.

El Greco ○ — An illustrative example of Mannerist painting.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini ○ — An illustrative example of Baroque sculpture and architecture.